Table 1 Ethnobotany and phytochemistry of Pakistani medicinal plants

Althaea officinalis Linn Malvaceae

Seed, root, leaves, flower

Methanol

n-hexacos-2-enyl-1,5-olide (altheahexacosanyl lactone), 2β-hydroxycalamene (altheacalamene) and 5,6-dihydroxycoumarin-5-dodecanoate-6β-D-glucopyranoside (altheacoumarin glucoside), lauric acid, β-sitosterol and lanosterol. Dihydrokaempferol 4′-O-glucoside, Tiliroside, Hypolaetin 8-0-gentiobioside

Expectorant, demulcent, burns, snake bite, asthma, bronchitis pneumonia, rheumatism, kidney and bladder problems

Decoctions of the plant, especially of the root, are very useful for intestinal problems. Seeds, leaves and flowers are boiled in wine or milk and taken to relieve diseases like chest, coughs, bronchitis and whooping-cough.

Oral, dermal

[32]–[34]

Azadirachta indica Adr. Juss. Meliaceae

Leaves

Ethanol

Azadirachtin

Antiseptic, digestive and gastric problems, skin diseases, stomach flatulence

Decoction of leaves is taken for digestive and gastric problems. Fresh leaves are boiled in water and tied on wounds. Leaves are dried, crushed and powder is mixed with small quantity of water and taken for the remedy of freckles on face and increase appetite by lessening stomach flatulence and killing worms.

Oral, dermal

[35]–[37]

Calendula arvensis L. Compositae

Leaves

Ethanol

28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-3-β-O-(O-β-D-galactopyranosyl (1 → 3)-β-D-glucopyranoside.

Hepatitis and spleen enlargement control

Decoction of leaves is used as required.

Oral

[35],[38]

3-β-O-(O-β-D-galactopyranosyl (1 → 3)-β-D-glucopyranoside.

Calotropis procera Ait. f., Hort. Solanaceae

Stem, leaves

Methanol, aqueous

alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, triterpenoids, saponins

Expectorant, anthelmentic, cholera, asthma, earache, pyorrhea, gastro-intestinal diseases

Stem latex is used in earache and asthma. Infusion of leaves used for stomach problems.

Oral, dermal

[35],[39]

Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae

Leaves

Ethanol

Anhydrocannabisativine

Sedative, anodyne, narcotic

Whole plant extract is effective cure of livestock dysentery. Cannabis is also used for the treatment of number of condition including AIDS, multiple sclerosis and thermotherapy induced nausea. Its decoction is used for the treatment of the cancer, neuro protection, fever and high blood pressure. It cause hallucination when drunk in excessive quantity.

Oral, dermal

[40]–[42]

Cannabisativine

cannabinoids

N-(p-hydroxy-β-phenylethyl)-p-hdroxy-(trans)-cinnamide

Carum copticum L. Apiaceae

Methanol, ethanol, n-hexane, acetone

Appetizers, kidney stone, digestion and whooping cough

Seeds are taken with little salt for gas trouble as stomach tonic.

Oral

[36],[43]

Cichorium Intybus L. Asteraceae

Root

Methanol

[lup-12,20 (29)-dien-3β-ol-3β-L-arabinofuranosyl-2′ -hexadecanoate]

Abdominal pain, diarrhea

The whole plant is used for carminative purposes.

Oral

[34],[40],[44]

[lup-12,20 (29)-dien-3β-olyl hexadecanoate]

[4β-(pent-2-enylolactone)-hexatriacontane]

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. Lauracaeae

Kohat

n-hexane

carbohydrates, alkaloids, tannins, steroids, tannins, flavonoids, glycosides

Toothache and sore gums, carminative, stimulant, anti-microbial, anti-fungal

Bark is boiled in water and makes tea and sipped.

Oral

[45]

Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) R. Wight. Orobanchaceae

Stem

Methanol

Glycosides, monoterpenes

[46]

Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae

Seed

Methanol

Daturadiol, daaturaolone, 3β,6β-dihydroxyoleane-12-ene, 3-oxo-6β-hydroxyoleane-12-ene

anti-inflammatory, laxative antispasmodic, sedative, malaria

Smoke of the plant is inhaled to cure asthma. Fruits are used in malaria. Fruit is used to reveal cardiac pains and distress. Leaves are used in earache. The juice of the fruit is applied to the scalp for curing dandruff and falling hairs.

Dermal

[34],[35],[47]

Delonix regia L. Leguminosae

Stem, bark, leaves

Ethanol, methanol

L-Azetidine-2-carboxylic acid, lupeol, epilupeol, b-sitosterol, stigmasterol and p- methoxybenzaldehyde alkaloids, tannnins, triterpenoids, steroids, glycosides, flavonoids, so-flaflavones, flavones, anthocyanine, coumarines, lignins, vitamin-A, vitamin-E, vitamin-C.ß-Amyrin, hesperitin

Abdominal pains, bronchitis and pneumonia

Root decoction is used for abdominal pains and in the treatment of scorpion bite. The leaves extract is used as anti-inflammatory. The herb is also used in bronchitis and pneumonia in infants. It is used as a carminative.

Oral

[48]–[50]

Dodonaea viscosa L. Capparidaceae

Leaves, aerial parts

Ethanol

Tannins, saponins, flavanoids and terpenoids

Astringent, anti rheumatic, swelling cutaneous, skeletal and gastro-intestinal diseases and burns

Grind the leaves and add small amount of water (Infusion) to make fine paste for dermal use.

Oral, dermal

[40],[51]

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Myrtaceae

Leaves

Ethanol

Ellagitannins, flavonoids, phloroglucinol derivatives and galloyl esters.

Flu and cold

Five to ten leaves boiled in water and decoction is taken for flu twice a day.

Oral

[36],[52]

Ficus carica L. Moraceae

Leaves, fruit

Ethanol

Steroids, triterpenoids, cumarines, flavanoids and glycoside

Respiratory, gastro intestinal, urinary and cutaneous diseases, demulcent, laxative, antiseptic, constipation, flatulence, measles, dysentery, bladder problems and verrucas

Burn the leaves and the ash is sprayed on the wounds dermally. Decoction is used for intestinal problems. Fresh fruit used in anemia and constipation. Latex obtained from the stem and leaves for checking bleeding.

Oral, dermal

[34],[53]

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae

Root

Methanol

Glycyrrhizin

Respiratory illness, cough

Dried root are crushed and powder taken orally.

Oral

[54]

Hyssopus officinalis L. Lamiaceae

Leaves

Methanol

a-Glucosidase inhibitors. quercetin 7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-D-xylopyranoside and quercetin 7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-D-xylopyranoside3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside

asthma, cough, bronchitis, fever, trauma, rheumatism

[55],[56]

Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae

Leaves

Methanol

Alkaloids

Diuretic, jaundice, antispasmodic cough, asthma, bronchitis, tuberculosis, rheumatism, gastro-intestinal, diarrhea, dysentery, antimicrobial

Grind the leaves and mix it with honey. The paste is used dermally around the swelling. Decoction is used for respiratory diseases and diarrhea.

Oral, dermal

[57]–[59]

Malva neglecta Wall. Malvaceae

Methanol

Purgative

[40]

Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae

Leaves, root, flower

Methanol

(2-methyl-3-methoxy-5,6-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone)

[60]

Mentha longifolia L. Lamiaceae

Leaves

Ethanol

Longifone, (longiside-A and -B) and flavanone-glycoside (longitin) tricetin 7-O-methylether 3′-O-glucoside 5′-O-rhamnoside, tricetin 3′-O-glucoside 5′-O-rhamnoside and tricetin 3′-O-rhamnosyl- 1 → 4 –rhamnoside

Carminative, diarrhea, dysentery and stomachache

The dried plant is use for the treatment of diarrhea and its “chatenii” is good tonic for improvement of stomach. The tea of leaf with lemon extract is common household tonic to cure cold, flu, respiratory disorders.

Oral

[40],[61],[62]

Olea europaea. L Oleaceae

Leaves

Ethanol

Oleuropein, Hydroxytyrosol, Leteoline-7-glucoside

[63],[64]

Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Labiatae

Leaves, root

Ethanol, methanol

5-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-oxo-7-[(α-L-rhamnopyranosyl) oxy]-4H-chromen-3-yl β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-[6-O-[(2E)-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) prop-2-enoyl]-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 3)]-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, 5-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-oxo-7-[(α-L-rhamnopyranosyl) oxy]-4H-chromen-3-yl [6-O-[(2E)-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) prop-2-enoyl]-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-[6-O-[(2E)-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) prop-2-enoyl]-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 3)]-α-L-rhamnopyranoside

Wounds, gum diseases, dental, cutaneous diseases

Oral

[35],[65]

Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle Paeoniaceae

Root, flower, leaves

Methanol

Monoterpenes, monoterpene glycosides, triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenols and tannins

Backache, epilipsy, convulsions, uterine diseases, vomiting, cholera, whooping cough, diarrhea

The leaves of Ruta graveolens, Paeonia emodi root, are grounded together and sieved through a cloth. Mamordica charantia and water are mixed together and added to sufuf formed.

Oral, dermal

[34],[66]–[68]

Phyllanths emblica L. Euphorbiaceae

Fruit, leaves

Methanol

kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(6″-methyl)-rhamnopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(6″-ethyl)-rhamnopyranoside 5-hydroxymethylfurfural Qeurcetin, gallicacid

Carminative, stomachic, diuretic, laxative cooling effect, asthma, bronchitis, scurvy, cardiac, tuberculosis, diabetes, gonorrhea, rheumatism, jaundice, dysentery, diarrhea

Dried fruits are grind and taken with water against dysentery and diarrhea

Oral

[34],[69],[70]

Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

Leaves, seed

Ethanol

DPPH (l,l-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), Gallic acid, quercetin, gentisic acid, rutin, epicatechin and ellagic acid

Emetic, narcotic, purgative, swelling, prolapse of uterus, gastro-intestinal diseases, rheumatism, paralysis, asthma, cough and constipation

Seed oil mixed with decoction of jaman (Cordia Oblique) leaves is given to cattle for constipation problems and increase appetite. Its leaf extract with (Grewia sp) bark fiber and fruit is frequently used for prolapse of uterus and easy delivery and to hasten release of birth in cattle.

Oral, dermal

[34],[40],[71]

Solanum surrattense Burrn. f. Solanaceae

Whole plant

Methanol

Chest pain, vomiting, burning feet, cough, asthma, expectorant, stomachache, diuretic, gonorrhea, urinary, gastro-intestinal diseases

Fruit is dried, crushed and powder is taken for abdomen pain and gas trouble.

Oral

[29],[36],[59]

Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. and Wendl. Sert. Hanov. Solanaceae

Leaves, stem, flower, root

Ethanol

Carpesterol and four steroidal glycosides, alkaloids, sterols, saponine, flavonoids, glycosides

[72],[73]

Trigonella foenum graecum L. Leguminosae

Seeds, stem, Leaves

Ethanol

5,7,3′-trihydroxy-5′-methoxylisoflavone, biochanin A, formononetin, irilone, tricin, daidzein,calycosin, orientin-2″-O-р-trans-coumarate, vitexin-2″-O-p-trans-coumarate, and tricin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside

anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, astringent, anthelmintic, wound healing, gastroprotective, chronic cough, leprosy, heart disease, antidiabetic, diarrhea, urethera prolapse

200 g seeds are ground and the resulting powder is used orally after washing urethra with a sugar and potash alum (potassium alum) mixture for 4–5 days.50 g seeds are mixed with fodder and fed to animal for 3–4 days.

Oral

[34],[74],[75]

Viscum album L. Loranthaceace

Leaves, twigs

Ethyl acetate, chloroform, ethanolic, methanolic, aqueous

4′-O-[β-D-Apiosyl (1 → 2)]-β-D-glucosyl]-5-hydroxyl-7-O-sinapylflavanone, 3-(4-acetoxy-3,5-dimethoxy)-phenyl-2E-propenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy)-phenyl-2E-propenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, 5,7-dimethoxy-4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside flavanone, 4′,5-dimethoxy-7-hydroxy flavanone, and 5,7-dimethoxy-4′-hydroxy flavanone

Anti-inflammatory, emetic, purgative, anti – diabetic, hernia

[76]

Withania somnifera Dunal. Solanaceae

Fruit, leaves

Methanol, ethanolic

withanosides I, II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII

Anthelmintic, leucorrhoea, tuberculosis abdominal pain

Fruit is given to children for removing abdominal pain. Decoction is used for blood purification.

Oral

[35],[31]

Ziziphus vulgaris Miller. Rhamnaceae

Fruit

Methanol

3-O-robinobioside, quercetin 3-O-rutinoside, 3-O-α-L-arabinosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-rhamnoside, 3-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-rhamnoside, 3′,5′-di-C-β-D-glucosylphloretin, 3-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-rhamnoside-4′-O-α-L-rhamnoside,

Laxative, cutaneous and gastro-intestinal diseases

Infusion

Oral

[29],[35]